Summary
The Way of All Flesh, a semi-autobiographical novel by Samuel Butler, stands as a scathing critique of Victorian-era hypocrisy. Written between 1873 and 1884 but published posthumously in 1903, the book traces four generations of the Pontifex family, focusing on the life of Ernest Pontifex and his struggle against oppressive parental influence.
Butler's work is renowned for its iconoclastic approach to Victorian values, challenging conventional notions of family, church, and class structure. The novel's exploration of heredity and environment as determinants of character reflects the emerging influence of Darwin's theories on literary thought. In 1998, the Modern Library ranked The Way of All Flesh twelfth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. The novel's enduring popularity has led to numerous reprints and critical analyses, cementing its place in the canon of English literature.
Plot
The Way of All Flesh follows the life of Ernest Pontifex, tracing his family history through four generations. The story begins with Ernest's great-grandfather, a carpenter named John Pontifex, and follows the family's rise in social status. Ernest's grandfather George becomes a publisher, while his father Theobald reluctantly enters the clergy and marries Christina.
Ernest's upbringing is marked by his parents' hypocrisy and domineering nature. His aunt Alethea recognizes this toxic environment but dies before she can intervene directly. However, she secretly arranges for Ernest to receive a fortune when he turns 28, entrusting this task to the narrator, Overton.
As a young man, Ernest embarks on a tumultuous spiritual journey. He becomes a clergyman and experiments with different Christian denominations. His attempts to live among the poor lead to a crisis of faith and a misguided sexual advance, resulting in a prison sentence. Disowned by his parents, Ernest abandons Christianity and marries Ellen, a former housemaid. Their marriage ends when he discovers Ellen's bigamy and alcoholism.
Upon receiving his aunt's inheritance at 28, Ernest gains financial independence. He returns home briefly, witnessing his father's diminishing influence. Ernest eventually becomes an author of controversial literature, rejecting the Victorian values that shaped his upbringing. The novel concludes with Ernest forging his own path, free from the constraints of his family's expectations and societal norms.
Themes
Criticism of Victorian hypocrisy and social conventions
Generational conflict and family dynamics
Religious doubt and loss of faith
Personal growth and self-discovery
Impact of upbringing on character development
Class mobility and social expectations
Struggle for individual freedom and autonomy
Setting
Set against the backdrop of Victorian England, The Way of All Flesh spans nearly a century, from the late 18th to the late 19th century. The novel's timeline roughly corresponds to the years 1765-1863, encompassing significant social and technological changes that shaped the era.
The story primarily unfolds in England, with much of the action taking place in the fictional town of Battersby-on-the-Hill. This rural setting serves as a microcosm of Victorian society, reflecting the rigid social structures and moral conventions of the time. Other locations include Cambridge, where Ernest attends university, and London, where he experiences both personal growth and hardship.
Butler's narrative also touches on broader geographical contexts, including references to Continental Europe. These glimpses beyond England's borders provide contrast to the insular Victorian world and hint at the changing global landscape of the 19th century. Throughout the novel, the physical settings mirror the psychological and social constraints imposed on the characters, particularly Ernest, as he navigates the expectations of his family and society.
Characters
Ernest Pontifex: The protagonist and central character. Ernest struggles against his oppressive upbringing and Victorian social conventions to find his own path in life. He goes through many trials including a stint as a clergyman, imprisonment, and a failed marriage before ultimately achieving independence and happiness. Ernest's journey represents the battle between individuality and societal expectations.
Theobald Pontifex: Ernest's domineering and hypocritical father. A clergyman who embodies the worst aspects of Victorian morality and respectability. Theobald's harsh treatment of Ernest and rigid adherence to social conventions drive much of the conflict in the novel. His character serves as a critique of oppressive parenting and religious hypocrisy.
Christina Pontifex: Ernest's doting but misguided mother. Though she loves Ernest, her sentimental nature and adherence to social norms contribute to his unhappy childhood. Christina represents the stifling effects of Victorian maternal expectations on children's development.
Alethea Pontifex: Ernest's kind and unconventional aunt. She sees through the hypocrisy of Ernest's parents and aims to help him, leaving him a fortune in secret. Alethea embodies a more progressive and compassionate worldview in contrast to Ernest's parents.
Edward Overton: The narrator and Ernest's godfather. A family friend who oversees Ernest's inheritance from Alethea and helps guide him later in life. Overton provides an outside perspective on the Pontifex family drama.
Ellen: Ernest's wife and former housemaid. She turns out to be an alcoholic and bigamist, leading to the end of their marriage. Ellen represents the dangers of hasty marriages across class lines.
George Pontifex: Ernest's grandfather and a successful publisher. His rise in social status sets the stage for the family's increasing pretensions. George represents social mobility and changing class dynamics in Victorian England.
Dr. Skinner: Ernest's schoolmaster. A strict disciplinarian who contributes to Ernest's difficult childhood. Dr. Skinner embodies the harsh educational practices of the Victorian era.
Quick facts
Samuel Butler wrote the novel between 1873 and 1884 but it was not published until 1903, a year after his death.
The book is largely autobiographical, drawing on Butler's own difficult relationship with his father.
It was initially titled Ernest Pontifex, or The Way of All Flesh before being shortened.
The novel spans four generations of the Pontifex family over nearly 100 years.
George Bernard Shaw praised it as “one of the summits of human achievement” in literature.
The original manuscript was heavily edited before publication. An unedited version wasn't released until 1964.
It is considered one of the first 20th century novels, despite being mostly written in the 19th century.
The book was ranked 12th on the Modern Library's list of 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.
The title comes from a biblical phrase meaning “to die” found in the Book of Kings.
Butler dared not publish it during his lifetime due to its controversial critique of Victorian society and values.
About the Author
Samuel Butler was an iconoclastic English author and critic who lived from 1835 to 1902. He is best known for his satirical novel Erewhon and his semi-autobiographical work The Way of All Flesh, which was published posthumously. Butler was a multifaceted intellectual who wrote on a wide range of topics including evolutionary theory, Christian orthodoxy, Italian art, and literary criticism.
Born into a clerical family, Butler had a strained relationship with his father and rejected a career in the Anglican church. Instead, he spent several years as a sheep farmer in New Zealand before returning to England to pursue writing and art. Butler never married and his sexuality has been the subject of scholarly debate, with some arguing he may have been a repressed homosexual.
As a thinker, Butler was known for challenging conventional wisdom. He developed alternative theories on evolution that criticized aspects of Darwinism, argued for the existence of a corporeal deity, and even proposed that a young Sicilian woman was the true author of Homer's Odyssey. While often controversial, Butler's work foreshadowed later developments in fields like psychoanalysis and science fiction.
Though he achieved limited success in his lifetime, Butler's influence grew after his death as readers discovered the prescient and subversive nature of his ideas. His experimental approach to fiction and willingness to tackle taboo subjects helped pave the way for modernist literature in the early 20th century. Today, Butler is recognized as an important and unique voice in Victorian literature and intellectual history.
