Summary
Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground is widely considered one of the earliest works of existentialist fiction. First published in 1864, this groundbreaking novella delves deep into the psyche of its unnamed protagonist, exploring themes of free will, alienation, and the darker aspects of human nature. The novella is divided into two parts—a philosophical monologue and a series of anecdotes from the narrator's life. Through these sections, Dostoevsky challenges the prevailing ideologies of his time, particularly nihilism and rational egoism. The work's influence extends far beyond its era, laying the foundation for modern dystopian literature and inspiring countless authors, philosophers, and filmmakers.
Plot
Notes from Underground begins with the unnamed narrator introducing himself as a bitter and isolated former civil servant living in St. Petersburg. He launches into a monologue that serves as a critique of contemporary Russian philosophy and societal norms. The narrator, often referred to as the Underground Man, grapples with concepts of free will, suffering, and the human desire for both pain and pleasure.
The novella is divided into two parts. In the first part, “Underground,” the narrator expounds on his worldview, arguing against utopian ideals and the notion that human behavior can be reduced to rational self-interest. He contends that people often act against their own best interests simply to assert their individuality and free will. The Underground Man's ramblings touch on themes of alienation, spite, and the inherent irrationality of human nature.
The second part, “Apropos of the Wet Snow,” shifts to a more narrative style as the Underground Man recounts specific events from his life. He describes an obsession with an officer who once insulted him, leading to a failed attempt at revenge. The narrator then attends a dinner party with former schoolmates, where his social awkwardness and resentment towards others become painfully apparent. The evening culminates in a visit to a brothel, where he encounters a young prostitute named Liza.
In the final sections of the novella, the Underground Man's interaction with Liza takes center stage. Initially, he attempts to “save” her by painting a bleak picture of her future, but when she later visits him at his squalid apartment, he cruelly rejects her compassion. The story concludes with the narrator unable to accept Liza's genuine empathy, driving her away and retreating further into his isolated existence. This final encounter serves to reinforce the Underground Man's inability to connect with others and his self-destructive nature.
Themes
Alienation and isolation from society
Irrationality of human nature
Critique of utopian ideals and rationalism
Free will versus determinism
Suffering and its role in human existence
Power dynamics and social hierarchy
Self-destructive behavior and psychological turmoil
Setting
Set in St. Petersburg during the early 1860s, Notes from Underground unfolds against the backdrop of a Russia in flux. The country was experiencing rapid social and political changes as it began to absorb Western European ideas and culture at an accelerated pace. This era saw growing tensions between traditionalists and reformers, creating an unstable climate that forms the foundation of the protagonist's disillusionment.
The story primarily takes place in the urban setting of St. Petersburg, Russia's cultural capital at the time. The city's streets, public spaces, and private dwellings serve as the stage for the Underground Man's encounters and ruminations. Of particular note is the Crystal Palace, a symbol of utopian ideals that the narrator vehemently critiques, representing the modernizing aspirations of Russian society that he finds so distasteful.
While much of the narrative occurs within the confines of the protagonist's mind, key scenes unfold in specific locations throughout St. Petersburg. These include a tavern where he is insulted by an officer, a dinner party with former schoolmates, and a brothel where he meets Liza. These settings provide concrete anchors for the Underground Man's abstract philosophical musings, grounding the story in the physical reality of 19th-century urban Russia.
Characters
The Underground Man: The unnamed narrator, often referred to as the Underground Man by literary critics. A bitter, isolated former civil servant living in St. Petersburg, he is deeply conflicted, oscillating between feelings of superiority and inferiority. His rambling confessions reveal a tormented psyche at odds with society and himself. He embodies the struggle between rationality and emotion.
Liza: A young prostitute the narrator encounters. Initially idealistic, she is moved by the narrator's impassioned speech about her future. Liza represents both the potential for redemption and the harsh realities of 19th-century Russian society.
Simonov: A former schoolmate of the narrator, who reluctantly includes him in plans for Zverkov's farewell dinner. Simonov serves as a link to the narrator’s past and highlights his social awkwardness.
Zverkov: Another former schoolmate, who is celebrating his departure from St. Petersburg. Confident and socially adept, Zverkov is everything the narrator is not. His presence amplifies the protagonist's feelings of inadequacy.
Apollo: A servant whose stoic presence irritates the narrator, exemplifying the everyday torments that fuel misanthropy.
Quick facts
Notes from Underground was first published in 1864 in the Russian literary magazine Epoch.
The novella is considered one of the first works of existentialist fiction.
Dostoevsky wrote the novella as a response to Nikolai Chernyshevsky's novel What Is to Be Done?
The unnamed narrator is often referred to as the “Underground Man” by literary critics.
The book is divided into two parts—“Underground” and “Apropos of the Wet Snow."
Notes from Underground popularized the concept of the “anti-hero” in literature.
The novella heavily influenced later writers like Franz Kafka and Jean-Paul Sartre.
Dostoevsky wrote Notes from Underground while deeply in debt and suffering from epilepsy.
Notes from Underground critiques utopian socialism and rational egoism, both popular in Russia at the time.
The book has inspired several screen adaptations—one of the most notable is Gary Walkow's 1995 film, starring Henry Czerny and Sheryl Lee.
There have been over a dozen English translations since its first publication.
About the Author
Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) was one of the most influential Russian novelists of the 19th century. Born in Moscow, he began his literary career in his 20s with the publication of his first novel, Poor Folk. Dostoevsky's early success was interrupted by his arrest and exile to Siberia for alleged involvement in revolutionary activities. This experience had a profound impact on his worldview and later writings.
Upon returning from exile, Dostoevsky wrote some of his most acclaimed works, including Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, Demons, and The Brothers Karamazov. His novels are known for their psychological depth, philosophical and religious themes, and vivid portrayals of human suffering and moral dilemmas. He explored complex ideas about free will, morality, and the nature of good and evil through his deeply flawed yet compelling characters. Stylistically, Dostoevsky was innovative in his use of polyphony—the presence of multiple narrative voices and perspectives within a single work. His writing was often intense and dramatic, with long philosophical discussions interspersed with moments of humor and acute psychological insight.
Dostoevsky’s works have been translated into more than 170 languages and continue to be widely read and studied today. His penetrating explorations of the human condition ensure his place as one of the towering figures of Russian and world literature.
