Setting

Hard Times takes place in mid-19th century England during the Industrial Revolution. The story unfolds against the backdrop of rapid industrialization, urbanization, and the rise of utilitarianism as a dominant philosophy. This era saw massive social and economic changes as factories and mills proliferated, drawing workers from rural areas into crowded industrial cities.

The primary setting is the fictional industrial town of Coketown in northern England. Described as a grim and polluted place dominated by factories and smokestacks, Coketown represents the dehumanizing effects of industrialization. Its name evokes the coal that powers its mills and factories. While not explicitly based on a single real location, Coketown shares characteristics with industrial centers of the time like Manchester and Preston.

Within Coketown, key locations include Mr. Gradgrind's school, where facts and statistics are rigidly taught; Bounderby's bank and factories, where much of the labor conflict unfolds; and the circus, which represents imagination and fancy in contrast to the utilitarian values of the town. The stark divide between the wealthy industrialists' estates and the workers' squalid living conditions further highlights the social inequalities of the period. Through this setting, Dickens critiques the harsh realities of industrial capitalism and its impact on the working class.

Characters

• Thomas Gradgrind: The school superintendent who is dedicated to facts and figures, dismissing imagination and emotion. His beliefs are challenged as the story progresses.

• Josiah Bounderby: A wealthy factory owner who boasts of being a self-made man. He marries Louisa Gradgrind but is revealed to be a fraud.

• Louisa Gradgrind: Mr. Gradgrind's eldest daughter, educated solely on facts. She struggles to express emotions and enters an unhappy marriage with Bounderby.

• Sissy Jupe: A kind-hearted circus girl taken in by the Gradgrinds. She represents imagination and compassion in contrast to their fact-based worldview.

• Tom Gradgrind: Louisa's brother, who rebels against his upbringing, becoming a gambler and thief. His actions lead to major consequences.

• Stephen Blackpool: An honest factory worker trapped in an unhappy marriage. He faces persecution after refusing to join a union.

• Rachael: Stephen's virtuous friend and love interest. She supports him through his trials and vouches for his innocence.

• Mrs. Sparsit: Bounderby's housekeeper, who delights in others' misfortunes. Her meddling ultimately backfires.

• James Harthouse: A bored aristocrat who attempts to seduce Louisa, causing a crisis in her marriage.

• Mr. Sleary: The lisping circus owner who represents the importance of entertainment and imagination.

Quick facts

• Hard Times is Charles Dickens's shortest novel, at around 110,000 words, and his only work that does not have any scenes set in London.

• The novel was originally published in weekly installments in Dickens's own magazine, Household Words. Dickens wrote the novel partly to boost falling circulation.

• Hard Times is one of the only two novels by Dickens to be narrated entirely in the past tense. (Great Expectations is the other.)   

• The fictional city of Coketown is believed to be based on the real-life industrial center of Preston, England.

• Hard Times is considered Dickens's most overtly political novel, marked by its sharp criticisms of utilitarianism and industrial society.

• The failure of Gradgrind's system to produce happy, moral children serves as Dickens' rebuke to utilitarian ideas in education and governance.

• The novel is divided into three books—“Sowing,” “Reaping,” and “Garnering."

• George Bernard Shaw praised Hard Times as a “passionate revolt against the whole industrial order of the modern world."

• In his influential book The Great Tradition, F.R. Leavis described Hard Times as Dickens's “only serious work of art.”

About the Author

Charles Dickens was one of the most popular and influential English novelists of the Victorian era. He began his career as a journalist before achieving fame with his first novel, The Pickwick Papers, in 1837. He went on to write numerous beloved and acclaimed classics including Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol, David Copperfield, Great Expectations, A Tale of Two  Cities, and Bleak House. Dickens's vivid characters, intricate plots, and sharp social commentary made him immensely popular with readers across class lines during his lifetime.

Born in 1812 in Portsmouth, Dickens endured a difficult childhood that included working in a factory at age 12 when his father was imprisoned for debt. His early experiences profoundly influenced his writing. A master of serialized fiction, Dickens would publish most of his major novels in monthly or weekly installments, building suspense with cliffhanger endings that kept Victorian readers eagerly awaiting the next chapter. His writing style was marked by a flair for caricature, flights of fancy, and sentimental scenes juxtaposed with harsh social realities. Through his fiction, Dickens powerfully depicted the ills of Victorian society and championed social reform.

Beyond his literary output, Dickens was a tireless performer who captivated audiences with dramatic readings from his works. He undertook numerous reading tours in Britain and America that further cemented his fame. Dickens died in 1870 at age 58, leaving his final novel, The Mystery of Edwin Drood, unfinished.