It felt inevitable. Years of declining childhood vaccination rates were bound to have consequences. In early 2025, those consequences became alarmingly real as a measles outbreak emerged in West Texas and Eastern New Mexico.

Before the introduction of the measles vaccine in 1963, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that measles infected three to four million Americans annually, causing 48,000 hospitalizations and 400 to 500 deaths each year. The introduction of the MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) vaccine marked a turning point. The two-dose regimen—first administered between 12 and 15 months of age, with a second dose between 4 and 6 years—was remarkably effective. By 2000, measles was declared eliminated in the United States.

But in recent years, progress has unraveled. A dramatic drop in vaccination rates—fueled largely by the discredited claim linking the MMR vaccine to autism—has allowed this once-vanquished virus to resurge.

Today, vaccination rates in many states have dipped below the 95% threshold needed for herd immunity, and the current outbreak offers a grim reminder of what’s at stake. In Gaines County, Texas, where vaccine exemptions are especially high among the local Mennonite population, hundreds of measles cases have been reported—resulting in at least two deaths in Texas and New Mexico.

In this episode, hosts Dr. Vivian Vega and Dr. Jackie Sherbuk trace the recent history of measles in the U.S., focusing on the current outbreak in Texas and New Mexico. They tackle the question: Why is measles still so dangerous? The discussion includes common complications of the disease, current vaccination guidelines, and a thorough debunking of the alleged MMR-autism connection. They also highlight a growing concern: cases of vitamin A toxicity in children, stemming from widespread misconceptions about its role in measles treatment.

Dr Vega would like to thank her friend Job Meiller for his musical contribution to our segment breaks. Thank you Job!

Thanks also to Dr. Ana Velez, our artistic contributor, for her painting, "SSPE-Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis," used in our episode thumbnail.

Virology vanguard Dr. Bob Gallo is far from ready to slow down. Now in his seventh decade as one of America's top scientists, he could easily sit back and enjoy the fruits of his numerous and pioneering achievements. His groundbreaking work began in the 1970s with research into human retroviruses, including the discovery of the T-cell growth factor (IL-2) and the identification of the Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus (HTLV-1) in 1980, earning him his first Lasker Award, often referred to as “America’s Nobel Prize.” His subsequent research led to the identification of HIV-1 as the cause of AIDS, securing him a second Lasker Award. In the 1980s, he was the world’s most cited scientist. Along with his team, he developed the first HIV blood test, crucial for understanding the spread of AIDS and managing HIV patients. In the mid 1990's Gallo and his collaborators discovered chemokines, naturally occurring compounds that were essential for understanding how HIV infects cells. Dr. Gallo later founded the Institute of Human Virology at the University of Maryland School of Medicine in 1996 and co-founded the Global Virus Network (GVN) in 2011 to enhance global virus detection and management. Recently, Dr. Gallo and his team moved to Tampa, the new global headquarters for GVN, where he now serves as director of the University of South Florida (USF) Virology Institute and Head of the Microbial Oncogenesis Program at the Cancer Institute at Tampa General Hospital (TGH).

In the first part of this wide-ranging interview, Dr. Gallo shares insights into his entry into virology and his initial research into the etiology of certain cancers. This work included crucial discoveries around T cell growth factors, paving the way for identifying HTLV-1. He discusses his collaboration with CDC epidemiologists, which led to recognizing AIDS as being caused by a retrovirus. Once the HIV virus was identified as the cause, creating the first blood test for HIV had profound impacts on the epidemic and patient care.

In the second segment, Dr. Gallo discusses the origins of the HIV virus and its early global spread. He also reflects on the COVID-19 pandemic, why the focus on its origins is irrelevant and reflects on how to rebuild public trust in science and medicine, which may have been damaged during the pandemic.

In the concluding segment, Dr. Gallo talks about his reasons for joining USF Health and TGH and the research areas he finds most promising going forward. He speculates on the prospects for an HIV vaccine, the impact of artificial intelligence on virology, and why he doesn’t necessarily worry about the threat of the next global pandemic. Finally, Dr. Gallo opens up about how the early loss of his young sister deeply affected his life and his desired legacy.

Dr Vega would like to thank her friend Job Meiller, her YES Man, for the wonderful musical contributions and coming through on every idea she has. This time he contributes his renditions of Bruce Springsteen's "Streets of Philadelphia" and "Your Song," by Elton John. Thank you Job!

Thanks also to Dr. Ana Velez, our artistic contributor, for her painting, "HIV," used in our episode thumbnail.

Having just survived the calorie-fest of the Thanksgiving Holiday, show hosts Drs. Vivian Vega and Jackie Sherbuk reflect on the changing seasons--and that has them thinking NOT just about the weather, but about the climate. Here to discuss the impact of a changing climate on infectious diseases, they welcome Dr. Lauren Rybolt, Chief Infectious Diseases Fellow at the University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine. Dr. Rybolt mentions that in the Tampa Bay Area, especially after the recent hurricane season, we are already seeing the effects of climate on infectious diseases occuring in real time. The direct effects of two rapidly intensifying hurricanes, Helene and Milton, that impacted Florida in late September and October have led to increased outbreaks of vibrio vulnificus and other waterborne infections, subjects which were highlighted in our very first episode.

Dr. Rybolt explains that the effects of climate change are not singular, but are the results of many interconnected processes. For instance, how warming oceans affect precipitation patterns over the U.S., leading to flooding in some areas and drier conditions in others. Flooding can pollute streams and rivers and contaminate water supplies, while displacing people and increasing exposure to mosquito-borne disease; whereas drought can lead to water insecurity and the health consequences of extreme heat on vulnerable populations. Man made deforestation and land development can worsen the effects of flooding, and at the same time exacerbate climate change due to the loss of ecosystems and carbon-absorbing vegetation, for instance.

Dr. Rybolt goes on to describe how the changing climate is producing an expanding zone of tropical infectious diseases in areas where they never occurred. More cases of Malaria and Dengue have been reported in Florida in recent years, for example. Tick-borne infections such as Lyme disease can expand to non-endemic regions due to climate change, but in Florida, we have been protected by a certain ubiquitous reptile. Certain fungal infections such as Candida auris have also spread beyond their typical "endemic areas" as well.

Lastly, during their "ID News" segment, Vivian and Jackie discuss World AIDS Day, trends in vaccination and respiratory virus season, as well as the recent discovery of Bird Flu in raw milk.

Thanks to Dr. Lauren Rybolt for appearing on this episode to share her knowledge about the infectious diseases impacts of climate change.

Dr Vega would like to thank her friend Job Meiller, her YES Man, for the wonderful musical contributions and coming through on every idea she has. This time he is joined by his daughter, Isabelle Meiller, for a moving rendition of "Big Yellow Taxi." Thank you Job!

Thanks also to Dr. Ana Velez, our artistic contributor, for her painting used in our episode thumbnail.