As European nations discuss preparing their militaries for war, Poland's former Chief of Defence, General Rajmund Andrzejczak, describes how they have led the way in increased military spend.

With almost 5% of its GDP now invested in defence, Poland has moved at speed to grow its armed forces. Indeed, Poland stands out as the European NATO member that has moved fastest to respond to the threats facing the Alliance and is rapidly becoming a European leader in defence.

In this episode, we talk to General Andrzejczak, the Chief of General Staff for the Polish Armed Forces between 2018 and 2023. It was while he was Poland's most senior military officer that preparations to face the new threat posed by Russia in Europe were accelerated.

He describes the opportunities and challenges in the transformation implemented across the physical, moral and conceptual components of Polish fighting power and what is still needed for NATO to deliver on its ambitions.

He also discusses how the European members of NATO might meet the Russia threat and respond to 'the strategic double espresso' of the 2025 US National Security Strategy.

A graduate of Poland's National Defence Academy, the Czech Army Defence Academy, and the Royal College of Defence Studies in London, General Andrzejczak is an expert commentator on European defence and security.

How did Prussia turn from a beaten underdog into the leader of a united Germany following its victories of the 19th century?

In this episode, Geoffrey Wawro, Professor of Military History at the University of North Texas, joins Beatrice and Paul to discuss Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Chief of Staff of the Prussian Army from 1857–71.

Given the limited funding available to Prussia, von Moltke the Elder successfully advocated for investments in essential infrastructure and the weapons with the greatest effect, rather than spreading funds thinly and ineffectively.

Professor Wawro explains how Prussia emerged victorious from three successive wars in Denmark (1864), Austria (1866) and France (1870-71), the role of education and how the military adapted to new technology on all levels.

Often seen as the gold standard for societal resilience, Finland has many admirers. The Secretary General of its Security Committee, Petteri Korvala, describes Finland's approach.

Many nations are exploring how to build societal resilience as part of a comprehensive approach to security. The Scandinavian countries are often seen as exemplars of best practice, with Finland arguably leading the pack. But delivering resilience through comprehensive security requires trust across all elements of society and a cultural shift as much as it needs the right structures and processes.

In this episode, we hear from the Secretary General of Finland's Security Committee, Petteri Korvala, about how their comprehensive security system works.

Petteri Korvala has over 30 years of experience in Finland's defence forces and internationally, including in the Ministry of Defence and in Finland's Permanent Representation to the European Union, as well as having served as a liaison officer in United States European Command.

Further Reading:

Finnish Government, Security Strategy for Society: Government Resolution, 2025:3, available at https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/items/0126122a-1e8a-4ffa-9868-6286292efc01

Vesa Valtonen & Minna Branders, 'Tracing the Finnish Comprehensive Security Model', in Sebastian Larsson & Mark Rhinard (eds.), Nordic Societal Security, Routledge, 2020, pp.91-108. Available at: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003045533-7/tracing-finnish-comprehensive-security-model-vesa-valtonen-minna-branders.

Ari-Elmeri Hyvönen & Tapio Juntunen, 'From "spiritual defence" to robust resilience in the Finnish comprehensive security model', in Sebastian Larsson & Mark Rhinard (eds.), Nordic Societal Security Routledge, 2020, pp.154–178.

Tom Woolmore, The Porcupine and the Hedgehog: The Influence of Finland's Comprehensive Security Model on the British Whole-of-Society Approach, King's College London Master's Dissertation, 2025, available at: https://turvallisuuskomitea.fi/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/MA-Thesis-Thomas-Woolmore.pdf

Andrew Sharples (London School of Economics and Political Science): From Bowling Alone to Fighting Together: Social Capital and Whole-of-Society Defence.