Aristotle used a systematic method for drawing conclusions from empirical observations. His concept of reality revolves around the idea of “substance,” which actually means “entity” in the sense employed by Aristotle. Every entity, he taught, is composed of matter that takes a certain form, configuration, or shape. For Aristotle, the “form” is what characterises each entity, what defines the nature of an entity, what makes it what it is. A material (“matter”) such as wood can take different forms. For instance, it can be an element in trees, but also in furniture, in a building, etc. In addition to speaking about matter and form, Aristotle employed the concepts of potentiality and actuality. He argued that most entities have the potential to become something else, and reach actuality when it fulfils its potential. Modern psychology employs the term self-actualisation to denote the process of human achievement. A man who pursues goals that fulfil his potential is driven by self-actualisation. For plants, a seed has the potential to become a plant. When a seed grows into a plant, it attains actuality, but psychologists don’t employ the term self-actualisation for plants and animals due to their inability to formulate complex goals. Aristotle’s theory of potentiality and actuality helps us grasp change and causality. The world is driven by entities that try to achieve their full potential; they generate relationships of cause and effect. Plants grow. Animals look for food. Human beings build homes and roads. Aristotle only managed to outline his philosophy of reality after he had abandoned Plato’s theory of forms. Plato believed in a mythical realm populated by perfect, immutable ideas or “forms.” According to Plato, the objects we perceive are just a reflection of the realm of forms. After rejecting Plato’s theory of an invisible realm of perfect forms, Aristotle simply pointed out that “forms” are part of the entities themselves. Each entity is made of matter and form. You cannot have one without the other. By using reason, humans can identify relations of cause and effect between several entities. There are four different types of causation, according to Aristotle, that is, four possible types of cause-and-effect relationships. Aristotle named them the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final cause. Let us take a bed as an example. What is the material cause? The wood that has been employed as material to make the concerned item. What is the formal cause? The carpenter’s design or idea of a bed. The efficient cause is the carpenter himself. The final cause is the purpose of the bed, that is, a place to sleep. By employing the Aristotelian concepts of matter and form, potentiality and actuality, and the types of causation (material cause, formal cause, efficient, and final cause), we can assess reality systematically, draw conclusions and gather knowledge. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-views-on-the-nature-of-reality/

When Aristotle was born in 384 BC, logic was in its infancy and indistinguishable from rhetoric; the ancient Greeks viewed rhetoric as useful because it could help them secure a business deal or win a case in court. The purpose of rhetoric was to win; logic (even twisted logic) was just part of its arsenal. Aristotle came up with a fresh approach to logic. His books “Categories,” “Prior Analytics” and “Posterior Analytics” give us his insights in this regard. “Categories” was written around 350 BC. Aristotle was just thirty-four years old at that time. The book enumerates crucial categories for analysing reality. The Aristotelian categories refer to substances, qualities and quantities, and to the relations between objects. They don’t add much to terms used by prior philosophers such as Plato (428-347 BC), Anaxagoras (500-428 BC) or Democritus (460-370 BC), but for the first time, they provide a systematic overview. In “Categories,” Aristotle introduces the term “substance.” I must point out that he did not mean “material” or “ingredient” as we do nowadays. For Aristotle, “substance” means “entity,” “creature” or key characteristics that define them. He says for instance that “the substance of human beings is rationality.” He means that the key characteristic that defines humans is rationality. Aristotle’ second and third works on logic are titled “Prior Analytics” and “Posterior Analytics.” They contain much more innovative ideas than “Categories.” Aristotle must have written “Prior Analytics” and “Posterior Analytics” after Plato’s death, that is, after 347 BC. Those two works are devoted to syllogistic reasoning, that is, to the rules for drawing correct conclusions from facts or statements. The term “syllogism” employed by Aristotle simply means a logical argument; every syllogism is composed of three steps of which the initial two are called premises (major premise and minor premise); the third step is the conclusion. Here is an example of a syllogism. “All men are mortal” is the major premise, and “Achilles is a man,” the minor premise. If you combine the major and the minor premise, you’ll arrive at the conclusion “Achilles is mortal.” In this example, “Achilles is a man” is the minor premise because Achilles is included in the major premise “All men are mortal.” Since Achilles is a man, he must be mortal. “Prior Analytics” teaches us that conclusions must be either true or false. Either Achilles is a man or he is not. If he is, then he must be mortal; when syllogisms are well-constructed, there is no possibility of a middle ground. Achilles cannot be at the same time mortal and immortal. He is either one or the other. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-philosophy-of-logic/

Like Schopenhauer would do twenty-four centuries later, Aristotle regarded practical wisdom (“phronesis” in Greek) as a crucial ingredient of a happy life. In his “Nicomachean Ethics,” Aristotle defined “phronesis” as a skill that enables us to choose the correct course of action and for the correct reasons. In other words, “phronesis” is the daily implementation of general moral principles. How do you develop practical wisdom? Through experience and rational reflection, answered Aristotle. It is not something that you can learn by heart. It does not consist of a series of rules that can be memorised and implemented blindly. To cultivate phronesis, you need to exercise judgement on a case-by-case basis, draw lessons from each experience, and adapt those lessons to the context of each situation. Practical wisdom, according to Aristotle, will not only help you attain your own happiness, but also contribute to the common good. It will guide you to a flourishing, thriving life, which will surely impact the community positively. Aristotle emphasised the role played by virtues in practical wisdom. Virtues such as courage, temperance and justice will guide you in each case, as general principles, so that you can make wise decisions and achieve happiness (“eudaimonia” in Greek). Although Aristotle linked practical wisdom to the pursuit of the golden mean, I strongly recommend you to ignore his ideas about the golden mean. They don’t make any sense and cannot be implemented consistently. The golden-mean principle consists, according to Aristotle, in finding the mid-point between extremes. For instance, if you take the virtue of courage, the mid-point should lie somewhere between cowardice and recklessness. Thus, Aristotle’s advice is that your actions should be neither excessive nor deficient. If you accept the golden-mean theory, practical wisdom will take a different shape in each situation. Virtue will be context-dependent and constantly variable. It will be driven by the ups and downs of life and your ability to cope with them. Aristotle didn’t view practical wisdom as purely intellectual because it is linked to one’s character and moral values. Since life prompts us to make quick decisions once and again, one needs strong ethics in order to find the right answers. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/aristotles-concept-of-practical-wisdom/